Ottoman Collapse, Europe, America, and the Modern Middle East

Allen's quick history:

From 1700 the Ottoman Empire began to decline. In 1798 Napoleon took Egypt (which became English in 1882). The rise of nationalism led territories to rebel, Greece (1829) and Serbia, Romania, Montenegro and Bulgaria (1875). Despite a series of modernizing reforms (constitutions, factories, banking, military), the Ottoman Empire was the "sick man of Europe." Just before WWI, Libya was taken by the Italians.

Joining WWI on the side of the Germans the Turks had early victories (the photograph is Kemal Ataturk at Gallipoli). The British fostered an Arab revolt (see the film "Lawrence of Arabia") making promises of independence to the Arab peoples, including Saudis, Syrians, and Palestinians if they would fight with them against the Turks. In a secret deal before the end of the war plans were laid to partition the Middle East and put it under English and French domination. At war's end Istanbul was occupied by the British and French, the sultanate ended, and the empire taken over. In 1922 a rebellion against the Europeans in Turkey led by Kemal Ataturk established modern Turkey as an independent state instituting European laws and dress.

Betraying their promises to the Arabs, the British and French divided the Middle East between them (based on their secret plan) and promised Palestine to the Jews (Balfour Declaration). The British and French created regions of administration to suit themselves. Based on the British promise Jews migrated to Palestine, especially after WWII (see Aliyah). In 1948 an uprising of Jews drove many Palestinians out of Palestine and the state of Israel was declared. Jews from Europe, the Middle East, and, later Russia, flooded in. The 1940s also saw many territories created by the Europeans gaining independence (Iran, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt).

The increasing importance of oil and the discovery of vast reserves led to major intervention in the region by American oil companies and the American government -- in many ways taking the place of the retreating British and French empires. The CIA overthrew a democratic government and installed the Shah of Iran in 1953, for example. The Cold War with Russia led Americans to see nationalists and socialists such as Gamal Abdel Nasser and Sadam Hussein (originally on the CIA payroll) as potential Russian allies and, thus, American enemies. In the Six Day War of 1967 Israel, seen as a client state of America, defended itself from an Arab attack and captured significant land in Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon. Although portions were returned, there are still calls by the UN and states in the region for a return to the 1967 borders.

In 1979 an Islamic uprising in Iran toppled the Shah (and led to Americans held as prisoners at the embassy). Soviet intervention in Afghanistan to support a socialist regime inspired the United States to lead a long, "secret" war supporting Islamic "freedom fighters" from the whole region, including the Islamic Brotherhood from Egypt and money from elites in Saudi Arabia. (Osama Ben Laden, a Saudi, was then also on the CIA payroll fighting "godless" communists.)

American efforts against the nationalists and support of traditional kingdoms (who work with American oil companies) and of Islamic fundamentalists (against the "communists" and "socialists") has typically undermined democracy in the region.

Anger against the United States is much intensified by continued American support of Israel (30 billion in military aid now committed for the next ten years) and disregard of the the Palestinians and other Arabs in the region. Add the War in Iraq -- 1 million Iraqis dead -- and the United States is certainly hated by many people in the Middle East.

How does this history influence the way we view 9-11 and "Islamic terrorists"? Who are the terrorists?